Born in Leipzig in 1646 to a professor father. Received free access to his father's library from age seven. Graduated from Leipzig University with multiple degrees in philosophy and law
Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in 6th century BCE. Presocratic philosophers like Thales and Anaximander explored cosmos through rational explanations. Socrates and Plato introduced Socratic method and moral philosophy. Aristotle developed systematic philosophy with four causes and formal logic
Rationalism views reason as the primary source and test of knowledge. Reality has inherent logical structure and certain fundamental truths exist. Rationalists' confidence in reason detracts from respect for other ways of knowing
Born in 1632 in Amsterdam to wealthy Marrano family. Received traditional Jewish education at Talmud Torah school. Worked at family business from age 14. Left family business in 1655 due to financial struggles
Spinoza was born in Amsterdam in 1632 to a prominent Portuguese-Jewish family. He was excommunicated from Amsterdam's Jewish community in 1656. He left Amsterdam to work on philosophical works and his Ethics
Born in 1694 as François-Marie Arouet, Voltaire became a prolific writer and philosopher. Exiled to England in 1726, where he studied Locke and Newton's ideas. Moved to Geneva in 1751, then Ferney in 1758, where he established a successful business. Died in Paris in 1778, denied church burial, later moved to Panthéon