Born in 1852 in Bebek, Istanbul, to historian Hayrullah Efendi. Studied in Paris, France, and Tehran, Iran. Learned Persian, Arabic, and Persian poetry
Ottoman modernization began with military reforms under Selim III. Tanzimat reforms in 1839 marked major turning point in Ottoman urban transformation. European powers influenced Ottoman modernization efforts in 19th century
Education significantly influenced society's social, economic, and cultural development. Western nations gained superiority through education reforms after Renaissance. Ottoman Empire lagged behind Europe in adapting to modernization
Tanzimat reforms were implemented during reigns of Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz. Western writers viewed reforms as Ottoman diplomatic support attempts. Ottoman reformers saw purpose as preserving state, not Christian equality
Ottoman Empire (1290s-1922) was vast land-based empire with diverse ethnicities. Millet system governed empire through semi-autonomous religious and ethnic communities. Empire faced challenges from competition with other empires and ethnic nationalism
Mehmed II (Fatih) conquered Constantinople at age 21 and established religious freedoms. Murad II transformed empire's economy through trade and infrastructure projects. Selim I expanded empire to 3.4 million km² and earned title of Caliph. Bayezid II consolidated authority and increased Ottoman navy