Argument consists of premises and conclusion to justify or persuade. Arguments can be studied from logical, dialectical, and rhetorical perspectives. Latin "arguere" means "to make bright" from Proto-Indo-European "argu-yo-"
Empiricism asserts that knowledge derives solely from sensory experience and empirical evidence. Empiricists argue that empirical methods are more reliable than purely logical reasoning. Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience in forming ideas rather than innate knowledge
Proof by contradiction establishes truth by showing false assumption leads to contradiction. Principle can be expressed as ¬¬P ⇒ P or (¬P ⇒ ⊥) ⇒ P. Principle is equivalent to law of excluded middle and law of noncontradiction
Born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece. Studied at Plato's Academy in Athens until his death in 347. Taught Alexander the Great in Macedon from 343 to 323. Founded Lyceum in Athens in 335, collecting first great ancient library. Retired from Athens in 323 due to anti-Macedonian sentiment
Hegel's dialectics consists of three moments: understanding, dialectical, and speculative. Understanding moment shows concepts with stable definitions. Dialectical moment reveals one-sidedness and self-sublation of understanding. Speculative moment unifies opposition between understanding and dialectical moments
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that make arguments less convincing. There are formal fallacies that affect argument structure. Informal fallacies involve problems with information or wording