Born in Amsterdam in 1632 to Portuguese-Jewish immigrants seeking religious freedom. Studied Hebrew, Latin, and lens making before being excommunicated in 1656. Moved to Leiden and Voorburg, where he developed a reputation for lens quality. Corresponded with leading European thinkers including Huygens and Leibniz
Huguenots were French Calvinists active in 16th century. Calvin estimated 300,000 French people became Protestant by mid-16th century. Catholic France persecuted Huguenots, leading to 300,000 flight
Spinoza was born in Amsterdam in 1632 to Portuguese Jewish parents. Amsterdam's Jewish community was unique, welcoming Christian refugees. Spinoza studied Hebrew and Jewish philosophy at a Talmud-Torah school
Freedom of thought, conscience and religion is guaranteed in all forms. Religious freedom includes worship, teaching, practice and observance. Churches and religious communities have autonomy from state authorities. Religious instruction in state schools must be regulated by law
Born in 1548 in Naples, Bruno became a Dominican priest at age 24. Known for his exceptional memory skills and knowledge of organized knowledge. Initially faced difficulties due to his free-thinking and forbidden books