North American study evaluates energy use and emissions of fuel/vehicle systems. Analyzes fuel production and vehicle operation from well-to-wheels perspective. Uses GREET Model for fuel production simulations
First rockets were unreliable Chinese fire-arrows that exploded or flew erraticly. Modern rockets are more reliable and efficient due to scientific understanding
Direct heating began with open fires, using wood or charcoal. Chinese invented enclosed stoves around 600 BC. Romans developed hypocaust system using hot gases beneath floors. Central heating reintroduced during Industrial Revolution
Integral tanks are sealed internal structures used in large aircraft. Rigid removable tanks are made of metal, plastic or fibreglass. Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed in aircraft structure. Conformal tanks are fitted closely to aircraft profile for extended range. External tanks are expendable and often jettisonable
DEF is a 32.5% urea solution used to reduce diesel engine emissions. It works through selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to lower nitrogen oxides. DEF injection rate is typically 2-6% of diesel consumption volume
ICEs convert chemical energy into kinetic power through combustion. First commercial engine created by Étienne Lenoir in 1860. Otto engine, first modern IC, patented in 1876