Writing creates persistent representations of human language using symbols and rules. Writing systems encode language across time and space. Writing involves cognitive, social processes and physical tools. Readers interpret and activate written texts
American frontier began with European settlements in 1607. Expansion ended with admission of western territories as states in 1912. Turner's Thesis (1893) emphasized frontier's role in American civilization
Early literature emerged from oral traditions in hunter-gatherer bands. Sumerian literature is oldest known, written in Sumer with poetic elements. Epic poetry reached pinnacle of ancient literature, recounting mythic heroes. Writing began independently in Mesopotamia, China, and Mesoamerica around 3200 BC
Writing originated in Mesopotamia with clay tablets from 3rd millennium BCE. Sumerians developed cuneiform script, used for record-keeping and literature. Egyptians used papyrus scrolls, some reaching over 40 meters in length. Chinese invented paper around 1st century CE, first printed book in 868 CE
Printing press originated in China around 3rd century AD. Chinese monks used wooden blocks for printing Buddhist texts. Bi Sheng developed movable type in 11th century China. Wang Zhen improved system in 14th century using rotary tables
Pre-Columbian civilizations had oral literature preserved by friars and historians. Columbus's sailors brought European ballads to Hispaniola. Oral narratives influenced Latin American literature through friars and historians