Empires are vast political units with multiple territories. Countries are sovereign states with defined territories and governments. Ancient empires were temporary and often consisted of city-states
Renaissance in Italy and Europe led to important scientific discoveries. Copernicus proposed heliocentric universe, challenging Ptolemy's theory. Galileo invented thermometer and made significant scientific contributions. Copernicus published his theory of Sun-centered universe in 1543
Ottoman Empire reached peak power in 1683, losing Battle of Vienna. Eastern question emerged during Russo-Turkish Wars of 18th century. Napoleon's alliance with Russia in 1807 threatened Ottoman Empire
19th century began January 1801 and ended December 1900. Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) pitted France against European powers. British and Russian empires expanded after Napoleon's defeat. Ottoman Empire underwent Tanzimat reforms but remained in decline
Frederick Barbarossa ruled Holy Roman Empire from 1152 to 1190. Alexander the Great conquered from Greece to Pakistan without losing battles. Constantine founded Constantinople and achieved administrative brilliance. Julius Caesar transformed Roman Republic into powerful empire. Cleopatra ruled Egypt from 69BC to 30BC with strategic mind
Hammurabi established first comprehensive laws in Babylonian civilization. Hatshepsut was second female pharaoh known for building and trade. Ramses II ruled Egypt for over 65 years, considered greatest New Kingdom leader. Cyrus founded largest Persian Empire, respected conquered cultures. Pericles transformed Athens into cultural center and democracy