Born Ugo Boncompagni in Bologna in 1502, studied law and taught jurisprudence. Served as judge, abbreviator, and cardinal before becoming Pope Gregory XIII. Had illegitimate son Giacomo Boncompagni, making him last Pope without issue
Born in 1268, Philip IV became King of France at age 17 in 1286. Married Joan I of Navarre in 1284, gaining control of Navarre and Champagne. Known as Philip the Fair for his handsome appearance
First inhabitants migrated north 10,000 BC following ice sheet retreat. Agricultural settlements appeared around Oslofjord 5,000-4,000 BC. Viking Age began with raids and colonization across seas. Christianity completed in 11th century, Nidaros became archdiocese
Frankish kingdom faced challenges from diverse peoples and aristocratic power. Carolingian dynasty gained dominance through palace mayors. Carolingians became "rulers by the grace of God" under Pippin III. Religious renewal and intellectual revival were emerging
Edward the Confessor named Harold Godwineson king in 1066. Harold faced threats from Tostig and Harald III from the start. William assembled 4,000-7,000 troops and crossed Channel in September 1066. Battle of Hastings occurred on October 14, 1066, resulting in Harold's death
Germanic tribes brought rich culture from Scandinavia, most of it lost. Christianity arrived in 5th century, requiring religious texts in German. First German texts reflected conservative religious reaction against secular culture