Porosity refers to voids within materials, affecting their mechanical properties. Porosity is measured as percentage between 0-1 or 0-100%. Various methods include direct, optical, and computed tomography
Native copper found in Mediterranean area 6000 BC. Copper casting and smelting began around 4000-3500 BC. First copper mining occurred in Timna Valley, Israel. Romans and Moors developed advanced mining techniques
AWS D1.1 is a consensus document based on decades of engineering experience. Code provides prequalified joint details with tolerances to 1/16" and 5°. Minimum weld sizes established based on material thickness
Higher lobe numbers increase torque but decrease RPM. Insert bits require higher lobe configuration for hard formations. Diamond bits benefit from lower lobe configuration. PDC bits need middle lobe configuration (3:4 or 4:5)
Buoyancy is the upward force that keeps objects afloat. Objects become lighter when immersed in fluid due to buoyancy
Drill collar is a thick-walled steel tube with threaded connections. Manufactured from chrome-molybdenum alloy 4140 with Brinell hardness 255-341. Available in lengths 2: 9.15-9.76m and 3: 12.8-13.27m