Victorian era lasted from 1820 to 1914, named after Queen Victoria. Society was hierarchical, organized by gender and class. Working class comprised 70-80% of population, middle class grew to 25%. British Empire expanded significantly between 1820 and 1914
First steam-powered vehicle built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769. First internal combustion-powered automobile designed by François Isaac de Rivaz in 1808. Modern car invented by Carl Benz in 1886. First mass-produced cars: Oldsmobile Curved Dash (1901) and Ford Model T (1908)
First steam engine described by Vitruvius and Heron of Alexandria in 1st century BC. Taqi al-Din created rudimentary steam turbine in 16th century Ottoman Egypt. Denis Papin developed steam digester in 1679 for bone fat extraction
Factories emerged during Industrial Revolution when cottage industry became impractical. Ancient Egypt had only one factory, Naucratis. First machines were animal traps, wheel invented around 3000 BC. Watermills were common in ancient civilizations, especially in Roman Empire
Capitalism emerged from conflict between aristocracy and serfs in Late Middle Ages. Feudal manors limited market development and stifled technological innovation. Enclosure of common land in 16th century created landless working class
Global transition from agricultural to industrial production from 1760 to 1820-1840. Started in Britain, spread to Europe and US. Textile industry was first to use modern production methods. Britain became world's leading commercial nation by mid-18th century