Sundiata Keita established Mali Empire in 1240 after defeating Sosso kingdom. Empire grew through centralised government and military expansion. Mali controlled trade routes between North Africa and Sahara desert. Timbuktu became major trade center with diverse commodities
Caliphate was political-religious state after Muhammad's death in 632 CE. First caliph was Abu Bakr, chosen by Medina elders. Caliph's authority based on conversion and moral excellence. First four caliphs established administrative organization and conquered territories
Muslims conquered North Africa from 705 to 711 under Musa ibn Nusayr. Muslim forces captured Toledo and Zaragoza, forcing Visigoths to submit. Muslim governors established themselves in Spain, including Pelayo in Asturias
Modern humans arrived in Pakistan between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Stone tools discovered in Soan Valley date back to 2.1 million years. Mehrgarh site shows early farming and herding (7000-5500 BCE). Indus Valley Civilization flourished between 2500-1900 BCE
Huguenots were French Protestants following Calvinist tradition. Term possibly derived from Swiss leader Besançon Hugues. By 1572, Huguenot population reached 10% of French population. By 1600, population declined to 7-8%
Henry I of England signed Treaty of Alton in 1101, ending Anglo-Norman succession crisis. First Norwegian king Sigurd I led crusade to Holy Land in 1107-1111. Henry V crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1111. First medieval universities founded, including Pierre Abelard's school